Piltdown Hoax

In early 1912, a laborer found a piece of skull when he was digging at Barkham Manor near the village of Piltdown in England. He then passed it on to amateur archaeologist, Charles Dawson, who passed on the news of discovering a part of a human skull to geologist, Sir Arthur Smith Woodward. Dawson claimed that the skull would “rival the German’s ape man”. After a summer of digging, they found an ape-like jawbone with human-like teeth, which seemed to connect to the skull Dawson had been given. The discovery was announced on December 18, 1912, named Piltdown Man or “the earliest Englishman”. It was accepted by the general public as it was proof of Charles Darwin’s theory that humans were connected to apes. It was proof of the earliest human. However, some scientist questioned its validity because part of the jaw was broken off, so there was no way to show if the jawbone truly fit the piece of skull. The canine tooth was absent. A year later, a canine tooth was miraculously found, which silenced those who were doubtful. This discovery was aided by Dawson, Woodward and priest, Teilhard de Chardin. The Natural History Museum and even Winston Churchill backed these discoveries. In 1953, the Piltdown hoax was announced. In the museum, Kenneth Oakley did a test to authenticate and date the fossils, which showed that Piltdown Man was much younger than expected. In the mineral department, tests were carried out to estimate the nitrogen content, which revealed that the skull had been stained and the teeth had been filed down. It was an old ape jawbone. The fossils were boiled and stained with chemicals to give them an aged look. The canine was filed and painted. There were several suspects who could have been responsible for the hoax. Conan Doyle, who created Sherlock Holmes, lived close to Piltdown and was in the same social circle as Dawson. He told Dawson he was excited about his finds, but scientists mocked him for his photographs of “spirits”, which made him upset. In his book, The Lost World, many things he wrote were parallel to the story such as saying “a bone can be as easily faked as a photograph”. He never admitted because he was engaged in political talk and trying to influence the British government in the conduct of war, so that would have been the wrong time to talk about such a thing. Charles Dawson is an obvious suspect, and had a personality of getting everything he went after. Other artifacts he claimed to discover were also fake. Woodward was Dawson’s number one supporter, but he didn’t even test the jaw for nitrogen content or spot signs of forgery like the filed teeth, even though he was the most eminent scientist at the museum. Martin Hinton, head of the paleontology department, was always skeptical of the Piltdown’s authenticity and some found stained and colored bones in an old one of his trunks, which looked similar to the staining and coloring of the Piltdown finds. Kenneth Oakley, who took part in discovering the hoax was also accused. He believed Martin Hinton was the one behind the hoax. Charles Dawson longed to find the first Englishman, since other countries such as France and Germany had long before discovered their early men. Things such as “egotism, pride, ambition and rivalry” can affect scientific judgments. Furthermore, those behind the Piltdown find did not take a close look at what they found or do tests on them to see if they were authentic or what they claimed to be. If they had spent more time analyzing what they found, or just holding up a magnifying glass to the teeth or bones, instead of jumping to conclusions, they would have been able to tell it wasn’t what they thought it was. Also, the fact that the hoax was not discovered earlier shows that other scientists removed from the situation did not try to verify their findings, they simply decided to accept them or at least many did. It took over 40 years for them to have enough doubt to investigate it throughougly, which is a huge flaw. As I said above, on behalf of the Natural History Museum, tests were carried out to estimate the nitrogen content, which revealed that the skull had been stained and the teeth were filed down. Kenneth Oakley did a nitrogen test, to authenticate and date the fossils which showed that Piltdown man was far younger than he was supposed to be. They also discovered that the fossils were boiled and stained with chemicals to make them look older. Even by using a magnify glass, Dawson could have seen the teeth were filed down. Therefore, the technology and investigation of scientists showed the positive aspects of the scientific process, exemplifying how talented and observant such scientists can be. It is not possible to remove the human factor from science, because a human has to interpret data and finding. Science is not only findings and research. It is connecting those findings and discoveries to other ideas and concepts and theories. Charles Darwin’s natural selection theory grew off of other scientists’ findings and discoveries, as well as other scientists’ theories and ideas. We can’t learn about the world simply by looking at a bone, we need professionals to analyze it and connect it to other ideas. There will always be chances in error, which is why every scientific idea is called a theory- it cannot be proven. I would not want to remove the human factor from science as I believe it is essential. If every theory is looked into thoroughly before it becomes a huge idea that people set as a basis for other ideas, then we will decrease chances for error like the Piltdown man hoax. This historical event shows that you should never be so gullible as to accept such huge information or ideas from unverified sources. You need to thoroughly investigate everything if such a huge idea is presented. Scientists mainly stayed quiet, even the Museum, instead of looking into the discovery from the beginning when people were having doubts. It doesn’t matter if you have many credible geologists on your side, there is no harm in questioning and verifying facts before deciding that if it is credible and reliable.

D.

1.Chimpanze

2.Baboon

3.Spider Monkey

4.Gibbon

5.Lemur

A.Environment

Lemurs: Lemurs still are native to the country Madagascar they also live in other parts of islands surrounding Madagascar. Lemurs prefer to live in the canopy tree tops of the tropical rain forest. Lemurs are the only mammals that inhabit Madagascar so they have no predator except for farmers where clear lands. The Lemurs communities’ diversity and complexity increases with floral diversity and precipitation, the lemurs feed on the flowers and insects and leaves that inhabit lemur’s environment. Lemurs spend most of their time in trees or bushes. Lemurs that stay awake during the day live in groups and nocturnal lemurs prefer to live alone.

Spider Monkey: Spider monkeys live in the tropical rainforests of Southern and Central America, from Southern Mexico to Brazil. Spider monkeys prefer to live in large tracts of moist evergreen forests and they require an undisturbed primary forest. They live in the upper layers of the rainforest and roam the high canopies of the rainforest. Spider monkeys spend most of their times up on trees so they are well adjusted to the life in the treetops of the rainforest. These monkeys are strong and agile and can find food with the resources that are within their environment. Spider monkeys are rarely seen on the ground do to natural predators that roam the grounds of the rainforest

Baboon: Baboons can be found in Africa. Baboons prey on fish, birds, and small antelope. They also feed on leaves and other vegetation that inhibit there island. Like any other mammals Baboons require water and can adapt to their environment as long as water and vegetation is close by. Baboons live in tall trees or on cliff faces.

Gibbons: Gibbons live in subtropical rainforests from northeast India to Indonesia and north to southern China, including the islands of Sumatra, Borneo, and Java. Gibbons move from tree to tree by swinging their arms between branches. Gibbons prefer to live high up in the trees keeping them safe from natural predators. The male and female gibbons sleep in separate trees. Gibbons are known to sing throughout the day unless they are sleeping.

Chimpanzee: Chimpanzees are able to live in all different types of habitats. They are known to be adaptable to all types of environments so in a way they are the closest mammals related to humans. Chimpanzees live both in trees and on the ground and live in large groups are some chose to be in smaller groups.


Answer B: Locomotor Patterns

Lemurs: lemurs are well known leapers they leapt from about 3 meters from tree branch to tree branch and climb up trees well also. Lemurs are able to walk on all four limbs making them quadruple.

Spider Monkey: There are different types of locomotion that spider monkeys use. The spider monkey uses all four limbs for locomotion as seen while walking or running. They use suspensory locomotion which is the type of locomotion that enables them to use their tails, to climb or to move throughout the trees. Since spider monkeys spend most of their times in trees there body is very acrobatic and they are able to move swiftly through tree tops.

Baboon: Baboons have a quadruple type of locomotion pattern locomotion pattern. Their locomotion pattern is different from other types of monkey these baboons walk on their digits or in other words they walk on their toes with the heels not touching the ground. This type of locomotion is known as digitigrade quadruple.

Gibbon: Gibbons main locomotion pattern is brachiating. When gibbons brachiate, they use four fingers of their hands like a hook, they use there hook like hands to swing from tree to tree. These types of monkeys have long s arms due to always swing from tree to tree. Gibbons are also known for being acrobatic just like the spider monkey. Gibbons lives are spent mainly in the trees. And just like the spider monkey gibbons prefer to live high up in trees due to natural predators that inhabit the ground beneath. Rarely are gibbons seen to be on the ground but when they are seen on the ground they walk on two legs. Gibbons are capable of walking along trees on their feet they use their arms as a type of balance to keep them steady preventing them from falling

Chimpanzee: the Chimpanzee is usually seen walking on all four limbs, and they are also capable of walking upright. Chimpanzees walk on the soles of their feet and the knuckles of their hands, this is also known as knuckle walking. Chimpanzees will naturally walk on their feet when they need to use their arms to carry something. Chimpanzees are also capable of brachiating so they are also able ability to swing from branch to branch in the trees.

C.
For the Spider Monkey and the Gibbon, I would say that the way they move locomotor patterns was influenced by the primates environment greatly. If these three primates were not able to hang from a tree or able to swing from branch to branch and had to walk on the ground they would be more prone to being eaten by a bigger predator. With the ability to hang from the trees and swing from the branches they are able to stay up in the high trees and keep themselves safe from the predators on the ground.

For the Chimpanzee I would say that the locomotion trait has been adapted to the environment. Chimpanzees are primates that can adapt to their environment really quickly. The way they move adjust to where they are living. Chimpanzee’s are able to walk on all fours or if they need to carry food or something else they are able to walk on two of their limbs. Chimpanzees are also able to climb trees and suspend themselves from branches. I think the chimpanzees locomotion trait works to their advantage sine they are able to adapt easily to any environment that they are in.

Baboons walk on all fours and their digits which is the tips of their toes and the knuckles of their hands. This locomotion trait I believe was adapted to help the baboons keep their hands and the soles of their feet from becoming to rough since they are not able to climb trees or hang from branches.

Lemurs adapted to their environment rather well. Since they are either on the ground or in the trees the locomotion movement of Lemurs has adapted well to their environment. They are able to move on the ground rather quickly and if need be can leap into the trees and have great balance.


I would say that the influence the environment has on physical and behavioral traits has a huge impact. I say this because we adapt to whatever situation or wherever we are so that we are compatible with what we are doing. I believe the same is for primates. The primates adapted to the environment that they were dealt. Some primates got pushed out of their natural environment and was relocated to a new one. With the new environment comes new issues, such as types of food, shelter, and the make up of the ground. The primates learned how to walk to keep their feet and hands from becoming to rough and other primates figured out how to leap into the higher trees or keep their balance on a slimmer tree branch. The environment impacts our traits immensely.

Analogy/ Homology On Dog's And Cat's Paw's

2D

1D

A.Two different species that possesses a homologus trait are a dog and a cat each of these mammals possess a trait of a paw.

B. Each of these animals possesses homologous trait of a paw, both a dog and a cat have many differences in structures. each come from a different species the cat comes from the feline species and the dog comes from the canine species but each of these species posseses a simlair trait and that is the trait of having a paw. Each of these animals have a different body structure the dog is bigger and is more muscular and broader and a cat is more flexible and narrow which enables it to get through small places. Each of these animals possess the same trait but uses it for different purposes for instance a dog uses a paw to dig up dirt and also to run and also use there paw as a defense or attack upon other animals, a cat uses there paws to climb up things such as tree’s and high places.

C The ancestors of the cat were traced back mostly through the teeth of fossils. The first creatures had sharp teeth and looked like little wolves. These Carwora were fierce hunters of small rodents They probabaly pranced like a horse, ate like a hog, had eyes like a dog and brooded like a buffalo. All those animals had the same ancestor, Artorcyon.

A.Two different species that possesses a homologus trait are a dog and a cat each of these mammals possess a trait of a paw.

B. Each of these animals has similarities in structure for instance they each have limbs, paws and tail.They both have fur, whiskers, eyes, ears, etc.When broken down each of these animals skeleton structure of a paw is very similar. Each of these animals uses there paws for similar reasons for example to dig, to attack and to also run and walk, etc.

C. Each of these species has a common ancestor an example of this might be an animal that was called the Artorcyon. And if we go far enough back in time we would fine one common ancestor between the dog and the cat but at one point in time at particular trait called to different species to emerge now knows as the feline species and the canine species. Now this common ancestor of these two species possessed an analogous trait called the paw and this goes to show the all pairs of organisms share some common ancestor if you go back far enough in time.

Protein Synthesis

HAVE FUN FIGURING IT OUT(:

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